The history of witchcraft: Witch Hunts in Europe

The history of witchcraft in Europe begins with both folk beliefs and with religious and classical texts. The texts have roots in Hebrew, Greek and Roman history. The development of beliefs about what witchcraft meant -- and especially the history of its gradual identification as a kind of heresy -- takes effect over hundreds of years. I have also included a few American and global events for perspective on the history of witchcraft trials and executions.

European "Christendom" saw a high level of persecution of witches -- those supposedly practicing maleficarum or harmful magic -- which peaked especially from the mid 15th century (1400s) to the mid 18th century (1700s).

The number executed on charges of witchcraft is not certain and subject to considerable controversy. Estimates have ranged from about 10,000 to nine million. Most historians accept a figure in the range from 40,000 to 100,000 based on public records; there were perhaps two to three times that many individuals accused formally of or tried for witchcraft. About 12,000 executions have been identified in existing records.

About three fourths of the executions based on witchcraft accusations were in the Holy Roman Empire, including parts of what are today Germany, France, the Netherlands and Switzerland. The peaks of accusations and executions came at somewhat different times in different regions.

The most executions in Europer, by number, for witchcraft were in the period from 1580 to 1650.

Timeline

Year(s)	Event
B.C.E.	The Hebrew Scriptures addressed witchcraft, including Exodus 22:18 and various verses in Leviticus and Deuteronomy.
about 200 - 500 C.E.	The Talmud described forms of punishments and execution for witchcraft
about 910	The Canon Episcopi was recorded by Regino of Prümm describing folk beliefs in Francia, just before the beginning of the Holy Roman Empire. This text influenced later canon law. It condemned maleficium (bad-doing) and sorilegium (fortune-telling), but argued that most stories of these were fantasy, and also argued that those who believed they magically flew were suffering from delusions.
about 1140	Mater Gratian's compilation of canon law, including the Canon Episcopi (see "about 910" above), also included writings from Hrabanus Maurus and excerpts from Augustine.
1154	John of Salisbury wrote of his skepticism about the reality of witches riding in the night.
1230s	An Inquisition against heresy was established by the Roman Catholic Church.
1258	Pope Alexander IV accepted that sorcery and communication with demons was a kind of heresy. This opened the possibility of the Inquisition, concerned with heresy, being involved with witchcraft investigations.
late 13th century	In his Summa Theologiae, and in other writings, Thomas Aquinas briefly addressed sorcery and magic. He assumed that consulting demons included making a pact with them, which was by definition, apostasy. He accepted that demons could assume the shapes of actual people; the demons' acts are thus mistaken for those actual people's.
1306 - 15	The Church moved to eliminate the Knights Templar. Among the charges were heresy, witchcraft and devil-worship.
1316 - 1334	Pope John XII issued several bulls identifying sorcery with heresy and pacts with the devil.
1317	In France, a bishop was executed for using witchcraft in an attempt to kill Pope John XXII. This was one of several assassination plots around that time against the pope or a king.
1340s	Black Death swept through Europe, adding to the willingness of people to see conspiracies against Christendom.
about 1450	Errores Gazaziorum, a papal bull, identified witchcraft and heresy with the Cathars.
1484	Pope Innocent VIII issued Summis desiderantes affectibus, authorizing two German monks to investigate accusations of witchcraft as heresy, threatening those who interfered with their work.
1486	The Malleus Maleficarum was published.
1500-1560	Many historians point to this period as one in which witchcraft trials -- and Protestantism -- were rising
1532	Constitutio Criminalis Carolina, by Emperor Charles V, and affecting the whole Holy Roman Empire, declared that harmful witchcraft should be punished by death by fire; witchcraft that resulted in no harm was to be "punished otherwise."
1542	English law made witchcraft a secular crime with the Witchcraft Act.
1552	Ivan IV of Russia issued the Decree of 1552, declaring witch trials were to be civil matters rather than church matters.
1560s and 1570s	A wave of witch hunts were launched in southern Germany.
1563	Publication of De Praestiglis Daemonum by Johann Weyer, a physician to the Duke of Cleves. It argued that much of what was thought to be witchcraft was not supernatural at all, but just natural trickery. The second English Witchcraft Act was passed.
1580 - 1650	Many historians consider this the period with the largest number of witchcraft cases, with the period of 1610 - 1630 being a peak within this period.
1580s	One of the periods of frequent witchcraft trials in England.
1584	Discoverie of Witchcraft was published by Reginald Scot of Kent, expressing skepticism of witchcraft claims.
1604	Act of James I expanded punishable offenses related to witchcraft.
1612	The Pendle witch trials in Lancashire, England, accused twelve witches. The charges included the murder of ten by witchcraft. Ten were found guilty and executed, one died in prison and one was found not guilty.
1618	A handbook for English judges on pursuing witches was published.
1634	Loudun witch trials in France. Ursuline nuns reported being possessed, victims of Father Urbain Grandier, who was convicted of sorcery. He was convicted despite refusing to confess even under torture. After Father Grandier was executed, the possessions continued until 1637.
1640s	One of the periods of frequent witchcraft trials in England.
1660	Another wave of witch trials in northern Germany.
1682	King Louis XIV of France prohibited further witchcraft trials in that country.
1682	Mary Trembles and Susannah Edward were hanged, the last documented witch hangings in England itself.
1692	Salem witch trials in the British colony of Massachusetts.
1717	The last English trial for witchcraft was held; the defendant was acquitted.
1736	The English Witchcraft Act was repealed, formally ending witch hunts and trials.
1755	Austria ended witchcraft trials.
1768	Hungary ended witchcraft trials.
1829	Histoire de l'Inquisition en Franceby Etienne Leon de Lamothe-Langon was published, a forgery claiming massive witchcraft executions in the 14th century. The evidence was, essentially, fiction.
1833	A Tennessee man was prosecuted for witchcraft.
1862	French writer Jules Michelet advocated a return to goddess worship, and saw women's "natural" inclination to witchcraft as positive. He depicted witch hunts as Catholic persecutions.
1893	Matilda Joslyn Gage published Women, Church and State which included the figure of nine million executed as witches.
1921	Margaret Murray's The Witch Cult in Western Europe was published, her account of the witch trials. She argued that witches represented a pre-Christian "old religion." Among her arguments: the Plantagenet kings were protectors of the witches, and Joan of Arc was a pagan priestess.
1954	Gerald Gardner published Witchcraft Today, about witchcraft as a surviving pre-Christian pagan religion.
20th century	Anthropologists look at the beliefs in different cultures on witchcraft, witches and sorcery.
1970s	Modern women's movement looks at the witchcraft persecutions using a feminist lens.
December 2011	Amina Bint Abdul Halim Nassar was beheaded in Saudi Arabia for practicing witchcraft.

Why Mostly Women?

About 75% to 80% of those executed were women. In some areas and times, mostly men were accused; in other times and places, most of the men who were accused or executed were connected with women who were accused. Why were most of those accused women?

The church itself saw witchcraft alternately as superstition that undermined church teachings and thus the church, and as real agreements with the Devil that also undermined the church. Cultural assumptions were that women were inherently weaker, and thus more susceptible to either superstition or to the Devil's approach. In Europe, this idea of women's weakness was tied to the story of Eve's temptation by the Devil, although the story itself cannot be blamed for the proportion of women accused, because even in other cultures, witchcraft accusations have been more likely to be directed at women.

Some writers have also argued, with significant evidence, that many of those accused were single women or widows whose very existence delayed the full inheritance of property by male heirs. Dower rights, intended to protect widows, also meant that women at a vulnerable time of life had some power over property that women usually could not exercise.

Witchcraft accusations were easy ways to remove the obstacle.

It was also true that most of those accused and executed were among the poorest, most marginal in society. Women's marginality compared to men added to their susceptibility to accusations.

Further Study

To learn more about the witch hunts of European culture, check out the history of the Malleus Maleficarum, and also check out the events in the English colony of Massachusetts in the Salem witch trials of 1692.
For more depth, you'll want to look at the detailed studies of this episode in history.  A few of these are below.

Studies and Histories of European Witchcraft Persecutions

The persecution of mostly women as witches in medieval and early modern Europe has fascinated readers and scholars. Studies have tended to take one of several approaches:

• Some of the earliest histories of the witch hunts of Europe used the practices as a critique of the earlier times or of Christianity. The purpose of such treatments is often to either promote the present as "more enlightened" or to learn lessons from that past that can be applied to current situations -- new "witch hunts," literally or metaphorically.

• Some historians have looked at the witches as heroic figures, representing an older religion struggling to survive against persecution. The purpose is often to celebrate their strength, inspire it today -- or to celebrate roots of a current belief system in those times.
• Another approach looks at how witchcraft was socially constructed by cultures and societies. The purpose is to shed light on how different societies create and shape expectations, including by gender and class.
• Another approach takes an anthropological look at accusations, beliefs and executions, examining who were involved and what beliefs or practices may have served what purposes. The purpose is to shed light on people of the time and their customs and beliefs.

Representative Resources

The following books are representative of the histories of witch hunts in Europe, and give a balanced view of what scholars are thinking or have thought about the phenomenon.

• Bengt Ankarloo and Gustaf Hennigsen, editors. Early modern European witchcraft: centres and peripheries. 1990.
• Michael D. Bailey. Battling demons: witchcraft, heresy and reform in the late middle ages.2003.
• Ian Bostridge. Witchcraft and its transformations, c. 1650 - c. 1750. 1997.

• Robin Briggs. Witches and neighbors: the social cultural context of early modern witchcraft. 1996.
• Hans Peter Broedel. The Malleus Maleficarum and the construction of witchcraft: theology and popular belief. 2003.
• George Lincoln Burr. Narratives of the Witchcraft Cases, 1648-1706. 1914.
• Stuart Clark. Thinking with demons: the idea of witchcraft in early modern Europe. 1997.
• Owen Davies and William De Blécourt. Beyond the witch trials: witchcraft and magic in Enlightenment Europe. 2004.
• Richard Kieckhefer. Witch trials: their foundation in popular and learned culture, 1300 - 1500. 1976.
• John Demos. The enemy within: 2,000 years of witch-hunging in the Western world. 2008.
• Alan Charles Kors and Edward Peters. Witchcraft in Europe, 400 - 1700: a documentary history. 2000.
• Brian Levack. The witch hunts in early modern Europe. 1995.
• Brian P. Levak. The witchcraft sourcebook. 2003.
• Geoffrey Parrinder. Witchcraft: European and African. 1963.
• Lyndal Roper. Oedipus and the devil: witchcraft, sexuality and religion in early modern Europe. 1994.
• James A. Sharpe. Instruments of darkness: witchcraft in early modern England. 1997.
• Anna Garlin Spencer. "The Social Use of the Post-Graduate Mother." 1913 essay. Read it here: After Motherhood.
• Montague Summers, translator. Malleus Maleficarum. 1486, translated 1928.
  
  Source link: click here

Alexander the Great's Hellenism - European History for AP World History

Alexander the Great took throne to Macedon, Greece after his father, Phillip II, was assassinated in 336 B.C. He was born in 356 B.C. and was tutored by Aristotle from when he was 13 until he was 16 years old. During Alexander's ruling, Macedon extended its territory dramatically. It was considered one of the largest empires of the ancient world, stretching from the Ionian Sea to the Himalayas. He accomplished this without losing a battle because of the experienced army his father left behind. As Alexander was conquering all of this area, he was teaching Greek/Hellenistic culture to the people he conquered. This is important because after Alexander died, Macedon fell apart and lost everything, but since the Greek/Hellenistic culture was taught to the people, it still lived on.

Macedon's ruling under Alexander the Great began after its king Phillip II was assassinated. He left the throne to his son, Alexander III (Alexander the Great), who was born in 356 B.C. Once he was king, Alexander had his cousin Amyntas IV, two Macedonian princes, and Attalus killed because they were all potential threats to the throne. His mom, Olympias, had Cleopatra Eurydice and Europa, her daughter by Phillip II, burned alive to help out her son as well. Alexander had some experience as a king before this because while his dad was away with business, Alexander was appointed as regent for the time he was gone. During one of these times there was an attack from a nearby empire and Alexander fought them off. This got him ready to become king of Macedon. Phillip II had a plan to take over a vast amount of territory but since he died he wasn't able to accomplish this. Alexander decided to follow up his dad's plans and put them into action. First, he needed to secure his northern borders so that he could trust them while he was down south. This only took a couple years then finally Alexander made his move south to conquer everything down there, which included Asia Minor, Egypt, Persia, Syria, Assyria, and Babylonia. Alexander tragically died in 323 B.C. and it left the empire in pieces. Phillip III and Alexander IV were appointed as joint kings but that didn't last very long. Rebellions occurred and over the course of 40 years, wars took place. In the end, there were 4 kingdoms that settled with equal amount of power. They were the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt, the Seleucid Empire in the East, the Kingdom of Pergamon in Asia Minor, and Macedon.

The Alexandrian Empire Grows

One major accomplishment of Alexander the Great is that he defeated every empire from the Ionian Sea to the Himalayas. This was originally his father's plan, but once he died, Alexander kept going with it. First, Alexander needed to further secure his northern borders so that they would be strong enough to hold while he was gone campaigning down south. To do this, he had to take over the empires of Thrace, Illyria, and Thebes. The only empire that gave him a little trouble was Thebes because they refused to surrender. In 334 B.C. Alexander was finished in the north which only took two years. He then moved on to Asia Minor which mainly involved the Persian Empire, ruled by Darius III. Alexander took the men he captured from the battles up north and put them in the army to fight the Persians. After a couple of loses, Darius III fled and left his army for dead. Since the Persian Empire was bigger than any of the other empires Alexander conquered, he wasn't done. Alexander captured all of Persia's costal cities to deny the Persia navy from attacking him. Since Persia was now in pieces, he moved on his way toward Egypt. Word had got out about Alexander and his army to almost all of Egypt so once he arrived every empire surrendered, but Gaza. Gaza was situated on a hill on all sides so it was easily protected. Alexander had a few failed attempts but he eventually took them over. Once he got to Jerusalem, he was welcomed with open gates and they regarded him as a liberator. Alexander then moved on to Babylonia where he was killed in action.

Hellenistic Culture and Legacy

Another accomplishment was that when Alexander was conquering all of these empires, he forced Greek/Hellenistic culture upon them. One major empire where you can see the influence of Greek/Hellenistic culture is in Persia. Alexander wanted to combine Greek culture with Persian culture. This is evident because Persia's town planning, education, local government and art changed due to the change in culture. Persia got to keep their religion of Zoroastrianism, however. Alexander was even written about in Zoroastrian books. The next empire that shows Greek/Hellenistic culture was the Romans. They weren't forced by Alexander to follow his culture. Instead, the Roman generals admired Alexander so much that they started following Greek/Hellenistic culture by choice. Most of the Roman generals wanted to associate themselves with Alexander's achievements so they made the rest of the Roman empire follow his culture. Some of these generals had some weird obsession with Alexander. For example, Pompey the Great got Alexander's haircut and searched for Alexander's 260 year old cloak and wore it as a sign of greatness. Julius Caesar made a bronze statue of Alexander but exchanged Alexander's head for his own. Other great Roman generals that followed Alexander were Octavian, Trajan, Nero and Caracalla. Another reason it was so important for Alexander to spread this culture is that once he was dead, it still lived on. All of the empires that he conquered kept Greek/Hellenistic culture even after Alexander died. But some empires combined it with their old culture.

Alexander the Great and Hellenism
336-303 bce

• Warrior who United Greece, Conquered Egypt, Persia, part of India
• Spread Greek culture to Middle East, Egypt and Indi
• Philip II and Macedonia

Alexander

• son of King Philip II of Macedon

Philip II – father of Alexander the Great

• great military leader and organizer
• Conquered much of Greece
• Alexander's early life
• Student of Aristotle (shown at left) from age 13 until 30s
• Studied all subjects and very bright
• Learned a lot about Greece, Perisa, Egypt from traveling emissaries to Macedonia
• Phillip II assassinated when Alexander was 18 and Alex became king

Alexander as Conquerer

• Controlled Greece, Egypt, Persia, and India 
• Started hundreds of cities including Alexandria in Egypt at mouth of Nile
• Encouraged soldiers to marry, have kids in locations all over empire so kids would love Greece
• Developed the Phalanx formation
• became king of Macedonia at 20
• Undefeated in battle; great strategist
• Died at 33 in Persia
• Phalanx
• Alexander loved to Fight
• “For the enemy pressed upon him with loud and warlike outcries; and charging horse against horse, with their lances, after they had broken and spent these, they fell to it with their swords. And Alexander, being easily known by his buckler, and a large plume of white feathers on each side of his helmet, was attacked on all sides, yet escaped wounding, though his cuirass was pierced by a javelin in one of the joinings. And Rhoesaces and Spithridates, two Persian commanders, falling upon him at once, he avoided one of them, and struck at Rhoesaces, who had a good cuirass on, with such force that, his spear breaking in his hand, he was glad to betake himself to his dagger. While they were thus engaged, Spithridates came up on one side of him, and raising himself upon his horse, gave him such a blow with his battle-ax on the helmet that he cut off the crest of it, with one of his plumes, and the helmet was only just so far strong enough to save him, that the edge of the weapon touched the hair of his head. But as he was about to repeat his stroke, Clitus, called the black Clitus, prevented him, by running him through the body with his spear. At the same time Alexander dispatched Rhoesaces with his sword.”   Plutarch on the Battle of Granicus

Alexander’s Empire doesn't last

• Civil War between Alexander's generals
• Empire divided into 4 parts; two important parts were
• Seleucus ruling the territories of Babylon,
• Ptolemy ruling the territories of Egypt,

Hellenistic Culture and Art

• Hellenism is the combination of Persian, Indian, Greek and Egyptian culture (P.I.G.e)
• Hellenism:  carried ideas of the Greeks and their love of learning throughout his empire.
• Women are treated better (can own property, some rights) but not equal
• Greek architecture spreads
• Art shows more movement and emotion
• (Venus de Milo and Old Market Women)

Legacies

• city of Alexandria as major port, greatest library in ancient W. world, universities also
• combined cultures into Hellenism
• spread Greek culture through the Middle East
• Tolerant of people and places he conquered.  Mostly wanted taxes and power – not destruction and control
• City states in Greece and India replaced by Empire which leads to Empire in Europe and India

 

 Source link: Click here

Europe History and Culture

The first civilization in Europe appeared in Crete, Greece, about 2000 BC, and was named for King Minos.  Their culture disappeared about 1450 BC, to be followed by the Mycenaean culture described in the Iliad and the Odyssey by Homer.

Classical Greek civilization, which began in the eighth century BC, introduced art, philosophy, mathematics, science, and politics.  Greece's contributions to society were then passed on to Rome, Italy, which fused it with their contribution of builders, engineers, lawmakers, and military strategists.  It is fair to say that the art, architecture, politics, religion, and writings that originated in Greece and Rome continue to have a large influence on Europe today.

The Roman Empire, which spanned 500 years and stretched from Britain to Persia, introduced Christianity to Europe.  As invasions from Germanic tribes from the north destroyed the Roman Empire, Europeans continued to have the Christian church in common.  During the 11th century, the Christian church split into two factions:  Orthodoxy in the east, and Roman Catholicism in the west.  When Roman Catholicism was divided by the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, a century of wars ensued.

No outline of European history can be complete without some mention of the Middle Ages, or Medieval period, which began with the decline and fall of the Roman empire in the 5th century, and ended with the emergence of the Renaissance in the 15th century.  During the Middle Ages, Europe's civilization declined and its political and social unity was replaced by a fragmented, feudal system.

During the 15th and 16th centuries, the Renaissance occurred, in which art, religion, and critical thinking enjoyed a rebirth.  In addition, the political focus shifted to Western Europe, and the nations of England, France, Spain, and Portugal emerged.  This was also the era when ideas about democracy and equality became popular.

In the 18th century, France's Napoleon attempted, and failed, to seize all of Europe.  Around this time, the American colonies also achieved independence from Britain.  As Europe struggled between democracy and socialism, two world wars broke out that shifted the balance of power.  Today, most European countries are allied under the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

Currently, Europe is one of the most diverse continents in the world, comprising more than 40 languages and 40 countries, each with their own unique culture and history. 

Source link: click here

Axis deer/Chital deer or Spotted deer(Chitrol Horin) one of the beautiful animal in Bangladesh

   A Axis deer/Chital deer (Chitral Horin) with velvet antlers


With a strange look two female deer/doe standing in a forest

With a strange look two female deer/hinds standing in the water


A newly born Chital deer/Axis deer or Spotted deer fawn

A female Chital deer/Axis deer or Spotted deer(Chitral Horin)

A Chital deer/Axis deer(Chitral Horin) with velvet antlers taking rest 
  


A group of Chital/Cheetal deer(Chitral deer) on a river bank to drink water


A Axis deer/Chital deer (Chitral Horin) with velvet antlers
 

Source link: Click here

Rickshaw and Bangladesh from economic perspective : one for another – why and how

The most common public transport in Bangladesh is Rickshaw. Rickshaws are seen all over the country - in the capital city, big major cities, towns and rural areas and even in the hilly areas. In Bangladesh people hardly need to walk. Once you are outside of your home to a nearby road or a lane, one or more rickshaws will appear within a few minutes, with the little silver bell tinkling to get your attention.

Despite of all critics the communication infrastructure has been developed last 25 years more or less all over Bangladesh. At every corner of Bangladesh, even in a remote area have roads that are paved with bituminous materials, concrete, cement or at least with bricks. Although the conditions of the roads are poor but communication is now much easier to drive a rickshaw on these roads. Not only this but there have also some other reasons that is why rickshaws are popular as a public mode of transport.

In Bangladesh roads are small and narrow in small towns, villages and even in the cities at residential areas. So rickshaws are comfortable transport to go through these roads.

A rickshaw in a village road in Bangladesh

Increasing income level of lower middle class and middle class people has raised the number of rickshaw passengers. Not only this but also people in Bangladesh don’t like to take a long walk carrying with some luggage to go somewhere. Climate of Bangladesh is not extreme. All around the year people can go out with more or less normal clothes. So it is not so difficult for the rickshaw drivers to drive a rickshaw (think about the European winter with snow) or not even for the passengers.

Rickshaw traffic in a narrow road in old Dhaka, Bangladesh

After marketing, easy journey to home by a rickshaw

‘’Rickshaw sector has a great contribution to Bangladesh economy. According to the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, in the year 1985-86 rickshaws contributed 34% of the total value-added by the transport sector in Bangladesh or roughly 984 crore taka or 9840 million BDT. This was more than double the contribution of all motorized road transport, 12 times the contribution of Bangladesh railways and 12,5 times the contribution of Bangladesh Biman, the national air line. Rickshaw accounts for more than half of Dhaka’s vehicles, 70 percent of its passengers and 43 percent of the total passenger mileage.Everyday about 70 lacks or 7 million passenger trips are made in Dhaka by rickshaws over a distance of one crore ten lacks or 11 million passenger miles. This is nearly double the output of London’s underground. Rickshaw provides one of the largest sources of employment in Bangladesh. In Dhaka over 700,000 people make rickshaw related work which is the largest single form of employment. We can count about 23 percent of the city’s workforce. At present more than two million or twenty lacks people all over the country find job in them. The great majority are rickshaw drivers, but there are also mysteries(repairers), owners, makers, shopkeepers(selling rickshaw parts, spear-parts and other materials), tea-stall owners and many others who survive on the basis of the rickshaw. The crud size of the rickshaw sector has important implications for the national economy. If we consider that for every male employed there are at least three dependents, thennationally around six million or sixty lack people depend directly on the rickshaws or 4,5 percent of the total population’’.(Rickshaw and Prejudice by Robert Gallagher,August 1998)

Rickshaws as a means of communication

In fact rickshaws are preferred travel mode or transport by women, children and the older people due to their safety, security and comfort perspective. In this context we can get our answer that why the numbers of rickshaws are increasing day by day. In Bangladesh especially in transport sector government takes no responsibility to build up a communication network. In every city and even in rural areas private sector takes the initiative to operate a somehow communication system. The whole country is overcrowded and traffic system is inadequate. Busses are over loaded although bus fare is cheaper than rickshaw fare but impossible for women, children, old and any physically weak or disabled person to travel by bus. Big or small cities don’t have any underground railway system or tram lines. So rickshaw is the only public mode to go somewhere. Rickshaw, taxi (difficult to go through a narrow road) or CNG baby taxi can offer a door to door service but the fare is much cheaper to hire a rickshaw. The Dhaka Integrated Transport Study report found that the rickshaw fare is more than double in comparison to bus fare for the same distance. But some 19,2 percent passengers use rickshaws while only 9,5 percent travel by bus. In a study the traffic dominance of rickshaw in Dhaka, Sylhet, Comilla and Rangpur cities are 49%, 78%, 80% and 55% respectively. (Source - Banglapedia )

A young guy finds his job as a rickshaw driver

A road side tea shop earns their living from rickshaw drivers

Every year a huge number of working force coming to join in the labour market of Bangladesh. As Bangladesh is a least developed country and government don’t affort to create sufficient jobs for the working force. The number of literate working force have a chance to find a job in industry sector like garments factory or any type of official job or even in service sector like  a seller or canvasser, in health sector or in manufacturing sector. But the illiterate working force coming from the rural areas to the labour market don’t have any jobs for them. They don’t have year around job and as a result of rural poverty this group of people migrate from rural to urban areas. They try to find jobs in the informal sector like rickshaw driving or in construction. These occupations don’t demand any previous experience or know how. It’s a question that why do rural migrants accept rickshaw driving as an occupation, despite its arduous nature. In a study done by Sharifa Begum and Binayak Sen in 2005 (Pulling rickshaws in the city of Dhaka: a way out of poverty?) shows the reasons that driving rickshaw is easy entry, especially for men who are illiterate, unskilled and lacking capital. Other reasons include the regular flow of income and earning more money. At the same time they can decide their working hours and own desire for choosing routes. Last few years a trend has developed that many people migrate to the big cities especially in Dhaka and drive rickshaw just for a month or little more. Now they try to avoid borrow money from others with a high interest rate for their children educational expense or other type of household needs they need a handful amount. Within a short period they can earn a handsome amount of money and return to their home. In my own investigation in Dhaka and Savar a rickshaw driver can earn on an average 500 taka per day. To hire a rickshaw for whole day 70 taka and for a half day 50 taka need to pay to the rickshaw owner.

A rickshaw garage and repairing center

By paying rickshaw fare to a rickshaw driver has a great socio – economic impact in our national economy. We can see that it’s a way to transfer wealth from middle class to the poorest. Especially Dhaka and other major cities rickshaw drivers send a significant portion of their earnings back to their villages, and may work seasonally as rickshaw drivers in order to raise money for farming. Rickshaw drivers of the urban areas actually supporting their families in the countryside and agriculture as well. So harming rickshaw drivers means harming poor villagers throughout the country and potentially our agricultural system as well. (Rickshaw bans in Dhaka city – Mahabubul Bari, Debra Efroymson; August 2005)

A seller of rickshaw accessories

We can make our own calculation to see that how much money flows in rickshaw sector. We count around 20 lacks or 2 million rickshaws are operating in the roads of Bangladesh. Very few rickshaw driver owns their rickshaw. We make a flat calculation. In an average rickshaw drivers pay 50 taka per day to the rickshaw owners. So the amount is per day earnings of rickshaw owners is 10 crore taka or 100 million BDT and per month 300 crore taka or 3 billion BDT.If we count that rickshaw drivers earn daily on an average 200 taka, so the amount will be 40 crore taka or 400 million BDT and per month 1200 crore taka or 12 billion BDT. From the lower middle class and middle class people 1200 crore taka  go over to the poorest group people of the country and circulate in our economic system.

A rickshaw rally for green environment

Now a days people all over the world is talking about ‘’global warming’’ and to keep and save a more green environment. Like Bangladesh, a most over crowed country in the world that don’t have almost any spear land to keep the country green can contribute in a way to a green environment by helping and develop rickshaw sector in a better way. We should think that rickshaws don’t make any harmful carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide in the air. Policy makers and mass people should consider the consequence of a well functioned rickshaw sector in Bangladeshi economy before taking any drastic steps and decisions. 

NB: All the images in this post are collected from different web sites. If anyone have any objection of using these images, that should be removed.

Source link: Click here

Rickshaws of Bangladesh and its history

The word ‘’ricksha/riska/rickshaw’’ originates from the Japanese word ‘’jinrikisha’’. In Japanese language ‘’jin’’ means human, ‘’riki’’ means power or force and ‘’sha’’ means vehicle. So, literally ‘’jinirikisha’’ means human powered vehicle.

A Bangladeshi ricksha/ riska/ ricksha/ rickshaw

A riksha/ riska/ rickshaw making garage or workshop

Long before when rickshaw was first introduced it was a two-wheeled cart, pulled by people. There were two rods attached to the sides of the cart that extend to the front. The driver or puller holds a rod in each hand and pulls the rickshaw. Rickshaws can have one or two riders. Only two people can ride at one time. Mostly men pull the rickshaws through the crowded streets. This type of rickshaws were seen in the beginning in Japan and spread out other south-east Asian countries like China, Singapore, Hongkong, Philippine, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, India. Still now these types of rickshaws are seen in the roads of Kolkata (Culcutta) in India. In Bangladesh rickshaw differs from its originality. Bangladesh has adopted three wheeled rickshaw. In fact, the Bangladeshi rickshaws we can call bicycle rickshaw or trishaw. But publicly in Bangladesh this bicycle rickshaw is called simply as rickshaw. This vehicle looks like a combination between a rickshaw and a bicycle. Instead of pulling the vehicle, the driver pedals in this vehicle. It has three wheels with one wheel in front of the driver and two wheels on the back side supporting the passengers. It’s a light three wheeled cart comprising a door less, chair like body mounted on springs with a collapsible hood. The hood consists of a frame of four bamboo strips with steel fittings and bollards over which an oil skin cover is stretched. It is made of wood, fabric, metal and plastic. It is handmade by the artists and craftsmen. Although it is a hard job to drive a bicycle rickshaw but much easier and better than the human pulled rickshaw. There is a story that how the two wheeled hand pulled rickshaw transformed to a bicycle rickshaw. This transformation happened not in Japan but in China. An American lady named Miss Betty Gordon of Louisville, Kentucky, was in Peking, China who got this idea. In fact the hand pulled rickshaw was slow and tearful job to pull. She tied a hand pulled rickshaw behind a cycle to get more speed with less wear and tear on the rickshaw puller. The idea went great with the Chinese and they started to shape this combination in a better way. As it was easier to drive like this bicycle rickshaw and offered twice or more the speed than of the hand pulled rickshaw.  This type of rickshaw soon gained popularity in China and then in Singapore. They became popular also in Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam and throughout Asia. Bicycle had got its modern shape by 1890 and helped to get rickshaw now a day’s shape. It too became easier to handle.

  American lady Miss Betty Gordon of Louisville, Kentucky, 
with her invented cycle rickshaw

It is still now controversial that who first invented rickshaw. So far as we know that rickshaw was first introduced in Japan widely at the beginning of Meiji restoration, around in the year 1868. From different sources we get different information about the inventor of rickshaw. Some sources say that an American blacksmith Albert Tolman has invented rickshaw around the year 1848 in Worcester, Massachusetts, for a missionary. Others claim that Jonathan Scobie or Jonathan Goble, an American missionary to Japan, invented rickshaw around 1869 to transport his invalid wife through the streets of Yokohama, Japan. Japanese sources often credit Izumi YYosuke, Suzuki  Tikujiro and Takayama Kosuke, who are said to have invented rickshaw in the year 1868. Starting in 1870, the Tokyo city authority issued a permission to build and sell rickshaws to these three men. The seal of one of these inventors was required on every license to operate a rickshaw. Other sources say that the design of the rickshaw was probably based on a old French painting ‘’Les deux carrosses’’ by Claude Gillot in the year 1707, that showed two rickshaw-like carts in a comical scene. These carts known as vinaigrettes, were used in the streets of Paris in the 18^th century. But finally we can say despite of all the theories regarding the invention of rickshaw, it had been developed in Japan by about 1868.

 A old French painting ‘’Les deux carrosses’’ by Claude Gillot 
in the year 1707 seems like a pulled rickshaw

In Indian sub-continent rickshaw first appeared in Simla around the year 1880. 20 years later, rickshaw was then introduced in Kolkata(the then Calcutta). There rickshaws were initially used by the Chinese traders to transport goods. Then later on the year 1914 some Chinese people applied for permission to transport passengers. Before or later rickshaw appeared in many big cities in south east Asia. Rickshaw became very soon a popular mode of transport in this region, because of they were cheaper, faster and easyer than the previously used palanquins(Palki-human carried cart) and horse cart(human labour was considerably cheaper than the use of horses). They were also able to get around narrow streets more easily.

Rickshaw riding in a  rural area of Bangladesh

In a rainy day riska/ riksha/ rickshaw riding

Rickshaw riding even in a flood affected area

So far we know that rickshaw was first seen in Bangladesh in Chittagong in the year 1919. Not from India but from Myanmar(the then Burma) rickshaw reached in Chittagong in Bangladesh.More interestingly, rickshaw did not spread out to Dhaka and other cities of Bangladesh from Chittagong.Rickshaws were seen in the streets of Dhaka around the year 1938. Dhaka got rickshaw from Kolkata(Calcutta). We get different information when rickshaw was first introduced in Dhaka city and other parts of Bangladesh. Some sources say that rickshaw came before Dhaka city in Narayangonj and Netrokona(now it’s a district, before it was a part of Mymensing district). The European jute exporters living in Narayangonj and Netrokona had first imported cyckel rickshas from Kolkata in 1930 for their personal use. From another source we come to know that in the year 1936 or 1937, two people from Mowlovibazar, Dhaka imported two rickshaws for the first time. They imported them from the French Coloney Chandan Nagor in West Bengal. Both were cyckel rickshaws. Each cost 180 rupees that time. According to writer Satten Sen, these two men were the path finder to operate rickshas in Dhaka city. From Rob Gallagher’s book ‘’Rickhsaws of Bangladesh’’ published in 1992 from UPL publication, Dhaka; states that a Bangali zaminder and a Marwari business man imported for the first time six rickshas in the year 1938. Some sources say that the zaminder lived in Sutrapur, Dhaka and Marwari business man lived in Wari, Dhaka. Besides these cyckel rickshas in the beginning of operating in Dhaka, seven two wheel human pulled rickshas were also imported and started to pull in the streets of Dhaka. People were shameful to ride these rickshas and avoided these human pulled rickshas. For the lack of public interest to use these rickshas, gradually they disappeared and bicycle rickshas became popular. Colorful decoration of the rickshas started after 1950’s in Bangladesh. Some sources say that rickshaw licence started to issue in Dhaka in the year 1944 and in Chittagong 1947. Now Dhaka City Corporation(DCC) has the authority to issue new rickshaw licence but they have made it stop not to issue any more rickshaw license since 1987. But the Wheel Tax Section of DCC renew rickshaw license every year. A issued rickshaw license or registration number can be sold to someone. So the rickshaw license gets a new owner and new address. At present Dhaka city’s rickshaw license number -1 (one) holder is Salauddin Mahmud, son of late Mohiuddin Mahmud, 65/2 New Poltan Line, Azimpur, Dhaka. He is also owner of the rickshaw license number 2 and 6. Salauddin Mahmud’s father was a school teacher and had a hobby to collect and be owner of the rickshaw license number from 1 to 10. He parched the number 1 rickshaw license at the cost of 6000 taka (that time it was Pakistani rupee). In Dhaka city that time market price of one Bigha (33 decimal) land was also around 6000 taka. He had 40 rickshaws. But during the liberation war in 1971, Pakistani army set in fire his garage.

Back side of a decorated rickshaw

A rickshaw driver is waiting with his decorated rickshaw for passengers

There are no accurate figures or statics of rickshaws that operates in the streets of Dhaka. I guess around 700,000- 800,000 rickshaws are  operating in Dhaka city now in the year 1012.  I have tried to collect some statics of rickshaw numbers in Dhaka city in different years from different sources. In the year 1941, Dhaka city had only 37 rickshaws and 181 rickshaws in the end of the year 1947.This information we get from historian Nazir Ahamed’s book ’’Dhakar Ittihas’’(History of Dhaka). According to another Dhaka historian Dr. Sharif Uddin Ahamed, there were 4025 rickshaws in the streets of Dhaka in the year 1962. After the liberation war the scenario of Dhaka city started to change very rapidly. The presser of migration from rural areas to Dhaka city also increased rapidly. At the same time increased the number of rickshaws in the city. In an estimate there were around 14000 rickshaws in Dhaka city in 1974. In the year 1982-83 the number of rickshaws became doubled and reached up to 28,703. Thereafter rickshaw numbers in Dhaka city have increased very rapidly. There were 88,000 rickshaws by the end of 1986-87. Obviously this was official legal registered number of rickshaws but according to various government authorities and newspapers journalists the figure could be around 150,000 to 200,000 rickshaws in the roads of Dhaka. In another report we see that in the year 2005 there were 500,000 rickshaws in Dhaka city.      

Rikshas/riskas/rickshaws in a crowded city's road

When rickshaw was first introduced in Bangladesh in 1919s and afterwards still today the rickshaw design has changed almost nothing. They have got their present look by around the 1950’s. Since then, the design, technology and operation of rickshaws in Bangladesh have showed little change. Most rickshaw drivers don’t own their own rickshaws and the owners themselves have very little reason to improve their vehicles because they are already making good profits. Due to the vicious cycle of poverty, the smaller owners, the misteris (those who build or make a rickshaw) and rickshaw drivers who (are directly involved in the system, have the possibility to improve their vehicles but don’t have the ability to do it) may clearly like to improve their vehicles do not have the ability to do it. This reason we cannot set to the country’s engineer and scientists. They just ignore and neglect to develop any advancement of the rickshaws. Due to lack of interests that development should have happened has not happened.

Still now in Bangladesh as a profession of rickshaw driving is considered very low status job. Very a few passengers behave with respect to a rickshaw driver. In bangla people call a rickshaw driver as ‘’ricshawala’’. We don’t think how these rickshaw drivers rolling our rural economy and keeping the environment carbon free in some degrees.

Rickshaw has become a symbol of Bangladesh and especially for its design and arts. And Dhaka capital city of Bangladesh is known as the world’s capital city of rickshaws.  

S: en.wikipedia.org;banglapedia.org;amarbornomala.com/details5206.html;sachalayatan.com/abu_reza/33630;somewhereinblog.net/blog/benqt60/28981590; Rickshaw and Prejudice by Robert Gallagher, August 1998;amarblog.com/blogs/pavelcc(10-02-2011).

Europe research papers

History reveals that, rather than a common or collective geographic and political entity, Europe was before the period of 1945 one of the most poorly defined, divergent and disorganized continents of the world. The following research offers a brief examination of the geographical perceptions that contributed to a misleading notion of Europe as a simply-defined geographical unit followed by a comprehensive examination of the more accurately diverse and fragmented community and history of Europe.

One of the reasons submitted for why a largely illusionary notion of Europe persisted before 1945 is that European history had, to that point, been viewed in the context of all European nations as a whole and as a community that was clearly distinct from any other in the world. This perception extended to the geographic delineation of Europe, an assertion that is supported by the fact that the predominant geographic expression of Europe has been largely confined to its unique existence or location between the Asian and African continents. Even more, this assertion is supported by the relatively common perception that the landmass of Europe itself essentially marked, if not the center of the world, at least “the center of some other conceptualization of the global environment”.

In the decades leading up to the period of 1945, Europe presented itself as a body of nations and nation-states intent on accomplishing more than a few geographical and political goals. Nevertheless, rather than underscoring the distinctions that existed between countries within the European world, this common intent worked to create the perception of European solidarity, unity and community among foreign spectators. Interestingly, the research suggests that seriousness of the various and ultimately divisive political goals of at least a few rogue European countries were fairly shrouded by the misconception of Europe as merely an advancing and/or forward moving region of the world. Europe research papers have been written by history experts. Paper Masters can produce a custom written project following your guidelines.

Turbulent Europe

Throughout Europe, the 17th and 18th centuries were a turbulent time. Among the many wars that were fought in this age, the War of Spanish Succession and the Seven Year’s War were particularly important.

During the reign of “The Sun King”, Louis XIV, of France, the Kingdom of Spain fought to break away from the hegemonic rule of the Hapsburgs. Following the death of the last Hapsburg king of Spain, the new king, Phillip V slowly began to break away from French domination. Though he was a grandson of France’s King Louis XIV, Phillip V wanted a sovereign Spain, while Louis XIV desired a Spain that would serve France.

The Roman Empire saw the succession of Spain and the expansions of France as a threat. Therefore, Britain, the Danish kingdoms and the HRE joined into an alliance to stem this tide. Britain’s General, John Churchill, brought the greatest victories against France as he out maneuvered Louis XIV, by securing the Netherlands, and the British foothold in Northern Europe.

A few decades later, the next great war, The Seven Years’ War, engulfed Europe again. The pressing of French interests in the North American regions was seen as a threat to other European nations. Prussia and Great Britain allied against France and fought for (actually) nine years. The resulting outcome saw a weakened France on the American continent, and in Europe, and a more powerful Prussia Europe, and a dominant Great Britain in North America.

Since the end of World War II, political leaders in Europe have worked to create a cohesive sustainable union, capable of economic and political harmony. These efforts have culminated in the creation of the European Union (EU) and subsequent economic integration through the introduction of the Euro. The degree of political and economic stability that has been generated in the member countries of the European Union has created an international superpower that is capable of overtaking the United States and Asia in terms of wealth.

While it is clear that Europe has achieved a significant amount of economic and political cohesion, it is also clear that the over arching character of the various governments that comprise the EU are too independent and autonomous to capitulate and create one unified state under a supranational government of Europe. In short, the United States of Europe will fail to materialize as each of the member governments will be unable to agree on a supranational government for political integration. With this argument in mind, this investigation seeks to show how the current path of the EU will prohibit political integration into one cohesive state.

Flag	English Short and Formal Names	Capital
	Albania Republic of Albania	Tirana Albanian: Tiranë
	Andorra Principality of Andorra	Andorra la Vella Catalan: Andora la Vella
	Armenia Republic of Armenia	Yerevan Armenian: (Yerevan)
	Austria* Republic of Austria	Vienna German: Wien
	Azerbaijan Republic of Azerbaijan	Baku Azerbaijani: Bakı
	Belarus Republic of Belarus	Minsk Belarusian: Мінск (Minsk)
	Belgium* Kingdom of Belgium	Brussels German: Brüssel French: Bruxelles Dutch: Brussel
	Bosnia and Herzegovina	Sarajevo Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian Latin: Sarajevo Bosnian, Serbian Cyrillic: Сарајево
	Bulgaria* Republic of Bulgaria	Sofia Bulgarian: София (Sofia)
	Croatia* Republic of Croatia	Zagreb Croatian: Zagreb
	Cyprus* Republic of Cyprus	Nicosia Greek: Λευκωσία (Lefkosia) Turkish: Lefkoşa
	Czech Republic*	Prague Czech: Praha
	Denmark* Kingdom of Denmark	Copenhagen Danish: København
	Estonia* Republic of Estonia	Tallinn Estonian: Tallinn
	Finland* Republic of Finland	Helsinki Finnish: Helsinki Swedish: Helsingfors
	France* French Republic	Paris French: Paris
	Georgia	Tbilisi / T'bilisi Georgian: თბილისი (T'bilisi)
	Germany* Federal Republic of Germany	Berlin German: Berlin
	Greece* Hellenic Republic	Athens Greek: Αθήνα (Athína)
	Hungary*	Budapest Hungarian: Budapest
	Iceland Republic of Iceland	Reykjavík Icelandic: Reykjavík
	Ireland	Dublin English: Dublin Irish: Baile Átha Cliath
	Italy* Italian Republic	Rome Italian: Roma
	Kazakhstan Republic of Kazakhstan	Astana Kazakh: Астана Russian: Астана (Astana)
	Latvia* Republic of Latvia	Riga Latvian: Rīga
	Liechtenstein Principality of Liechtenstein	Vaduz German: Vaduz
	Lithuania* Republic of Lithuania	Vilnius Lithuanian: Vilnius
	Luxembourg* Grand Duchy of Luxembourg	Luxembourg German: Luxemburg French: Luxembourg Luxembourgish: Lëtzebuerg
	Macedonia Republic of Macedonia	Skopje Macedonian: Скопје (Skopje)
	Malta* Republic of Malta	Valletta English: Valletta Maltese: Valletta
	Moldova Republic of Moldova	Chișinău Romanian: Chișinău
	Monaco Principality of Monaco	Monaco French: Monaco
	Montenegro	Podgorica Montenegrin: Подгорица (Podgorica)
	Netherlands* Kingdom of the Netherlands	Amsterdam (capital) The Hague (seat of government) Dutch: Amsterdam Dutch: 's-Gravenhage / Den Haag
	Norway Kingdom of Norway	Oslo Bokmål: Oslo
	Poland* Republic of Poland	Warsaw Polish: Warszawa
	Portugal* Portuguese Republic	Lisbon Portuguese: Lisboa
	Romania*	Bucharest Romanian: București
	Russia Russian Federation	Moscow Russian: Москва (Moskva)
	San Marino Republic of San Marino	San Marino Italian: San Marino
	Serbia Republic of Serbia	Belgrade Serbian: Београд, Beograd
	Slovakia* Slovak Republic	Bratislava Slovak: Bratislava
	Slovenia* Republic of Slovenia	Ljubljana Slovene: Ljubljana
	Spain* Kingdom of Spain	Madrid Spanish: Madrid
	Sweden* Kingdom of Sweden	Stockholm Swedish: Stockholm
	Switzerland Swiss Confederation	Bern / Berne German: Bern French: Berne Italian: Berna
	Turkey Republic of Turkey	Ankara Turkish: Ankara
	Ukraine	Kiev Ukrainian: Київ (Kyiv)
	United Kingdom* United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland	London English: London
	Vatican City Vatican City State Holy See	Vatican City Italian: Città del Vaticano

*Chart Courtesy of Wikipedia

Related Research Paper Topics

European Colonialism Research Papers deal with the technology advancements that took place.
European Enlightenment - European Enlightenment research papers discuss one of the most revolutionary period of intellectual development in Europe that ocurred between 1620 1780.
European Jews - Research Papers on European Jews discuss the history of the Jewish pople in Europe.
Black Death - The Black Death research papers cover the famous plague that covered the world in the 14th Century. Order a research paper on Black Death from Paper Masters.
Eastern Europe - Eastern Europe research papers examine the eastern half of the continent of Europe.
European Financial Crisis - The European Financial Crisis research papers discuss the different challenges that Europe is faced with when dealing with their economic issues presently.
European Union Constitution - European Union Constitution Research Papers delve into an example of an order placed for a research paper that would like the history on the European Union.
Maximilian - Maximilian research papers look at the Holy Roman Emperor who through dynastic marriage, made his son King of Spain, establishing the Hapsburg dynasty over a significant part of Europe.
Ireland and the European Union research papers look at the relationship between the EU and other members nations to Ireland.
Twentieth Century European History research discusses the economic, social and political devastation that had resulted as a consequence of the Second World War.
Western Europe research papers examine the area geographically and politically.
Fall of the Roman Empire research papers illustrate that the Roman Republic may have fallen because of moral problems.
Wars Research - Research for wars involve an incredible amount of information.