The history of Asia can be seen as the collective history of
several distinct peripheral coastal regions such as, East Asia, South
Asia, and the Middle East linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe.
The coastal periphery was the home to some of the world's earliest
known civilizations, with each of the three regions developing early
civilizations around fertile river valleys. These valleys were fertile
because the soil there was rich and could bear many root crops. The
civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and China shared many similarities and likely exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel.
Other notions such as that of writing likely developed individually in
each area. Cities, states and then empires developed in these lowlands.
The steppe region had long been inhabited by mounted nomads, and from
the central steppes they could reach all areas of the Asian continent.
The northern part of the continent, covering much of Siberia was also inaccessible to the steppe nomads due to the dense forests and the tundra. These areas in Siberia were very sparsely populated.
The centre and periphery were kept separate by mountains and deserts. The Caucasus, Himalaya, Karakum Desert, and Gobi Desert
formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could only cross with
difficulty. While technologically and culturally the city dwellers were
more advanced, they could do little militarily to defend against the
mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough
open grasslands to support a large horsebound force. Thus the nomads who
conquered states in the Middle East were soon forced to adapt to the
local societies.
Asia's history would feature major developments seen in other parts
of the world, as well as events that would affect those other regions.
These include the trade of the Silk Road,
which spread cultures, languages, religion, and disease throughout
Afro-Eurasian trade. Another major advancement was the innovation of gunpowder in medieval China, which led to advanced warfare through the use of guns.
Prehistory
A report by archaeologist Rakesh Tewari on Lahuradewa, India
shows new C14 datings that range between 9000 and 8000 BCE associated
with rice, making Lahuradewa the earliest Neolithic site in entire South
Asia.[1]
The prehistoric Beifudi site near Yixian in Hebei Province, China, contains relics of a culture contemporaneous with the Cishan and Xinglongwa cultures of about 8000–7000 BCE, neolithic cultures east of the Taihang Mountains,
filling in an archaeological gap between the two Northern Chinese
cultures. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square meters and
the collection of neolithic findings at the site consists of two phases.[2]
Around 5500 BCE the Halafian culture appeared in the Levant, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia, based upon dryland agriculture.
In southern Mesopotamia were the alluvial plains of Sumer and Elam. Since there was little rainfall, irrigation systems were necessary. The Ubaid culture flourished from 5500 BCE.
Ancient history
Bronze Age
The Chalcolithic period (or Copper Age) began about 4500 BCE, then the Bronze Age began about 3500 BCE, replacing the Neolithic cultures.
The Indus Valley Civilization
(IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 BCE; mature period
2600–1900 BCE) which was centered mostly in the western part of the
Indian Subcontinent; it is considered that an early form of Hinduism was
performed during this civilization. Some of the great cities of this
civilization include Harappa and Mohenjo-daro,
which had a high level of town planning and arts. The cause of the
destruction of these regions around 1700 BCE is debatable, although
evidence suggests it was caused by natural disasters (especially
flooding).[3] This era marks Vedic period in India, which lasted from roughly 1500 to 500 BCE. During this period, the Sanskrit language developed and the Vedas
were written, epic hymns that told tales of gods and wars. This was the
basis for the Vedic religion, which would eventually sophisticate and
develop into Hinduism, a religion based on the caste system of class (which consisted of the four varnas), the brahman priesthood, and the developing semi-monotheism.[4]
China and Vietnam
were also centres of metalworking. Dating back to the Neolithic Age,
the first bronze drums, called the Dong Son drums have been uncovered in
and around the Red River Delta regions of Vietnam and Southern China.
These relate to the prehistoric Dong Son Culture of Vietnam. Song Da
bronze drum's surface, Dong Son culture, Vietnam
In Ban Chiang, Thailand (Southeast Asia), bronze artifacts have been discovered dating to 2100 BCE.
In Nyaunggan, Burma bronze tools have been excavated along with
ceramics and stone artifacts. Dating is still currently broad (3500–500
BCE).
Middle East
The Achaemenid dynasty of the Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great, ruled an area from Greece and Turkey to the Indus River and Central Asia during the 6th to 4th centuries BCE. Persian politics included a tolerance for other cultures, a highly centralized government, and significant infrastructure developments. Later, in Darius the Great's
rule, the territories were integrated, a bureaucracy was developed,
nobility were assigned military positions, tax collection was carefully
organized, and spies were used to ensure the loyalty of regional
officials. The primary religion of Persia at this time was Zoroastrianism, developed by the philosopher Zoroaster. It introduced an early form of monotheism
to the area. The religion banned animal sacrifice and the use of
intoxicants in rituals; and introduced the concept of spiritual
salvation through personal moral action, an end time, and both general and Particular judgment with a heaven or hell.
These concepts would heavily influence later emperors and the masses.
More importantly, Zoroastrianism would be an important precursor for the
Abrahamic religions
such as Christianity, Islam, or Judaism. The Persian Empire was
successful in establishing peace and stability throughout the Middle
East and were a major influence in art, politics (affecting Hellenistic
leaders), and religion.
Alexander the Great conquered this dynasty in the 4th century BCE, creating the brief Hellenistic period. He was unable to establish stability and after his death, Persia broke into small, weak dynasties including the Seleucid Empire, followed by the Parthian Empire. By the end of the Classical age, Persia had been reconsolidated into the Sassanid Empire, also known as the second Persian Empire.
The Roman Empire would later control parts of Western Asia. The Seleucid, Parthian and Sassanid dynasties of Persia dominated Western Asia for centuries.
India
The Maurya and Gupta empires are called the Golden Age of India and
were marked by extensive inventions and discoveries in science,
technology, art, religion, and philosophy that crystallized the elements
of what is generally known as Indian culture. The religions of Hinduism and Buddhism, which began in Indian sub-continent, were an important influence on South, East and Southeast Asia.
By 600 BCE, India had been divided into 17 regional states that would occasionally feud amongst themselves. In 327 BCE, Alexander the Great came to India with a vision of conquering the whole world. He crossed northwestern India and created the province Bactria but could not move further because his army wanted to go back to their family. Shortly prior, the soldier Chandragupta Maurya began to take control of the Ganges river and soon established the Maurya Empire.
The Maurya Empire (Sanskrit: मौर्य राजवंश, Maurya Rājavanśha) was the
geographically extensive and powerful empire in ancient India, ruled by
the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 BCE. It was one of the world's
largest empires in its time, stretching to the Himalayas in the north, what is now Assam in the east, probably beyond modern Pakistan in the west, and annexing Balochistan and much of what is now Afghanistan, at its greatest extent. South of Mauryan empire was the Tamilakam an independent country dominated by three dynasties, the Pandyans, Cholas and Cheras.
The government established by Chandragupta was led by an autocratic
king, who primarily relied on the military to assert his power.[5] It also applied the use of a bureaucracy and even sponsored a postal service.[5] Chandragupta's grandson, Ashoka,
greatly extended the empire by conquering most of modern-day India
(save for the southern tip). He eventually converted to Buddhism,
though, and began a peaceful life where he promoted the religion as well
as humane methods throughout India. The Maurya Empire would
disintegrate soon after Ashoka's death and was conquered by the Kushan
invaders from the northwest, establishing the Kushan Empire.
Their conversion to Buddhism caused the religion to be associated with
foreigners and therefore a decline in its popularity occurred.[5]
The Kushan Empire would fall apart by 220 CE, creating more political turmoil in India. Then in 320, the Gupta Empire (Sanskrit: गुप्त राजवंश, Gupta Rājavanśha) was established and covered much of the Indian Subcontinent. Founded by Maharaja Sri-Gupta,
the dynasty was the model of a classical civilization. Gupta kings
united the area primarily through negotiation of local leaders and
families as well as strategical intermarriage.[6] Their rule covered less land than the Maurya Empire, but established the greatest stability.[6] In 535, the empire ended when India was overrun by the Huns.
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